Milestones

7.5. The programme areas included in this chapter are:
· Providing adequate shelter for all;
· Improving human settlement management;
· Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management;
· Promoting the integrated provision of environmental infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage and
solid-waste management;
· Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in human settlements;
· Promoting human settlement planning and management in disaster-prone areas;
· Promoting sustainable construction industry activities;
· Promoting human resource development and capacity-building for human settlement
development.

PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Providing adequate shelter for all Basis for action
7.6. Access to safe and healthy shelter is essential to a person's physical, psychological, social and economic well-being and should be a fundamental part of national and international action. The right to adequate housing as a basic human right is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Despite this, it is estimated that at the present time, at least 1 billion people do not have access to safe and healthy shelter and that if appropriate action is not taken, this number will increase dramatically by the end of the century and beyond.

7.7. A major global programme to address this problem is the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000, adopted by the General Assembly in December 1988 (resolution 43/181, annex). Despite its widespread endorsement, the Strategy needs a much greater level of political and financial support to enable it to reach
its goal of facilitating adequate shelter for all by the end of the century and beyond.

Objective
7.8. The objective is to achieve adequate shelter for rapidly growing populations and for the currently deprived urban and rural poor through an enabling approach to shelter development and improvement that is environmentally sound.

Activities
7.9. The following activities should be undertaken:
· As a first step towards the goal of providing adequate shelter for all, all countries should take immediate measures to provide shelter to their homeless poor, while the international community and financial institutions should undertake actions to support the efforts of the developing countries to provide shelter to the poor;
· All countries should adopt and/or strengthen national shelter strategies, with targets based, as appropriate, on the principles and recommendations contained in the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000. People should be protected by law against unfair eviction from their homes or land; · All countries should, as appropriate, support the shelter efforts of the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the no-income group by adopting and/or adapting existing codes and regulations, to facilitate their access to land, finance and low-cost building materials and by actively promoting the regularization and upgrading of informal settlements and urban slums as an expedient measure and pragmatic solution to the urban shelter deficit;
· All countries should, as appropriate, facilitate access of urban and rural poor to shelter by adopting and utilizing housing and finance schemes and new innovative mechanisms adapted to their circumstances;
· All countries should support and develop environmentally compatible shelter strategies at national, state/provincial and municipal levels through partnerships among the private, public and community sectors and with the support of community-based organizations;
· All countries, especially developing ones, should, as appropriate, formulate and implement programmes to reduce the impact of the phenomenon of rural to urban drift by improving rural living conditions;
· All countries, where appropriate, should develop and implement resettlement programmes that address the specific problems of displaced populations in their respective countries;
· All countries should, as appropriate, document and monitor the implementation of their national shelter strategies by using, inter alia, the monitoring guidelines adopted by the Commission on Human Settlements and the shelter performance indicators being produced jointly by the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and the World Bank;
· Bilateral and multilateral cooperation should be strengthened in order to support the implementation of the national shelter strategies of developing countries;
· Global progress reports covering national action and the support activities of international organizations and bilateral donors should be produced and disseminated on a biennial basis, as requested in the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000.

Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.10. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $75 billion, including about $10 billion fro m the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are nonconcessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means

7.11. The requirements under this heading are addressed in each of the other programme areas included in
the present chapter.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.12. Developed countries and funding agencies should provide specific assistance to developing countries
in adopting an enabling approach to the provision of shelter for all, including the no-income group, and covering research institutions and training activities for government officials, professionals, communities and non-governmental organizations and by strengthening local capacity for the development of appropriate technologies.
B. Improving human settlement management

Basis for action
7.13. By the turn of the century, the majority of the world's population will be living in cities. While urban settlements, particularly in developing countries, are showing many of the symptoms of the global environment and development crisis, they nevertheless generate 60 per cent of gross national product and, if properly managed, can develop the capacity to sustain their productivity, improve the living conditions of their residents and manage natural resources in a sustainable way.
7.14. Some metropolitan areas extend over the boundaries of several political and/or administrative entities (counties and municipalities) even though they conform to a continuous urban system. In many cases this political heterogeneity hinders the implementation of comprehensive environmental management programmes.

Objective
7.15. The objective is to ensure sustainable management of all urban settlements, particularly in developing countries, in order to enhance their ability to improve the living conditions of residents, especially the marginalized and disenfranchised, thereby contributing to the achievement of national economic development goals.

Activities
(a) Improving urban management
7.16. One existing framework for strengthening management is in the United Nations Development Programme/World Bank/United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) Urban Management Programme (UMP), a concerted global effort to assist developing countries in addressing urban management issues. Its coverage should be extended to all interested countries during the period 1993- 2000. All countries should, as appropriate and in accordance with national plans, objectives and priorities and with the assistance of non-governmental organizations and representatives of local authorities, undertake the following activities at the national, state/provincial and local levels, with the assistance of relevant programmes and support agencies:
· Adopting and applying urban management guidelines in the areas of land management, urban environmental management, infrastructure management and municipal finance and administration;
· Accelerating efforts to reduce urban poverty through a number of actions, including:
· Generating employment for the urban poor, particularly women, through the provision,
improvement and maintenance of urban infrastructure and services and the support of economic activities in the informal sector, such as repairs, recycling, services and small commerce;
· Providing specific assistance to the poorest of the urban poor through, inter alia, the creation of social infrastructure in order to reduce hunger and homelessness, and the provision of adequate community services;
· Encouraging the establishment of indigenous community-based organizations, private voluntary organizations and other forms of non-governmental entities that can contribute to the efforts to reduce poverty and improve the quality of life for low-income families;
· Adopting innovative city planning strategies to address environmental and social issues by:
· Reducing subsidies on, and recovering the full costs of, environmental and other services of high standard (e.g. water supply, sanitation, waste collection, roads, telecommunications) provided to higher income neighbourhoods;
· Improving the level of infrastructure and service provision in poorer urban areas;
· Developing local strategies for improving the quality of life and the environment, integrating decisions on land use and land management, investing in the public and private sectors and mobilizing human and material resources, thereby promoting employment generation that is environmentally sound and protective of human health.
(b) Strengthening urban data systems

7.17. During the period 1993-2000 all countries should undertake, with the active participation of the business sector as appropriate, pilot projects in selected cities for the collection, analysis and subsequent dissemination of urban data, including environmental impact analysis, at the local, state/provincial, national and international levels and the establishment of city data management capabilities. 5/ United Nations organizations, such as Habitat, UNEP and UNDP, could provide technical advice and model data management systems.
(c) Encouraging intermediate city development

7.18. In order to relieve pressure on large urban agglomerations of developing countries, policies and strategies should be implemented towards the development of intermediate cities that create employment opportunities for unemployed labour in the rural areas and support rural-based economic activities, although sound urban management is essential to ensure that urban sprawl does not expand resource degradation over an ever wider land area and increase pressures to convert open space and agricultural/buffer lands for development.

7.19. Therefore all countries should, as appropriate, conduct reviews of urbanization processes and policies in order to assess the environmental impacts of growth and apply urban planning and management approaches specifically suited to the needs, resource capabilities and characteristics of their growing intermediate-sized cities. As appropriate, they should also concentrate on activities aimed at facilitating the transition from rural to urban lifestyles and settlement patterns and at promoting the development of small scale economic activities, particularly the production of food, to support local income generation and the production of intermediate goods and services for rural hinterlands.

7.20. All cities, particularly those characterized by severe sustainable development problems, should, in accordance with national laws, rules and regulations, develop and strengthen programmes aimed at addressing such problems and guiding their development along a sustainable path. Some international initiatives in support of such efforts, as in the Sustainable Cities Programme of Habitat and the Healthy Cities Programme of WHO, should be intensified. Additional initiatives involving the World Bank, the regional development banks and bilateral agencies, as well as other interested stakeholders, particularly international and national representatives of local authorities, should be strengthened and coordinated.

Individual cities should, as appropriate:
· Institutionalize a participatory approach to sustainable urban development, based on a continuous dialogue between the actors involved in urban development (the public sector, private sector and communities), especially women and indigenous people;
· Improve the urban environment by promoting social organization and environmental awareness through the participation of local communities in the identification of public services needs, the provision of urban infrastructure, the enhancement of public amenities and the protection and/or rehabilitation of older buildings, historic precincts and other cultural artifacts. In addition, "green works" programmes should be activated to create self-sustaining human development activities and both formal and informal employment opportunities for low-income urban residents;
· Strengthen the capacities of their local governing bodies to deal more effectively with the broad range of developmental and environmental challenges associated with rapid and sound urban growth through comprehensive approaches to planning that recognize the individual needs of cities and are based on ecologically sound urban design practices;
· Participate in international "sustainable city networks" to exchange experiences and mobilize national and international technical and financial support;
· Promote the formulation of environmentally sound and culturally sensitive tourism programmes as a strategy for sustainable development of urban and rural settlements and as a way of decentralizing urban development and reducing discrepancies among regions;
· Establish mechanisms, with the assistance of relevant international agencies, to mobilize resources for local initiatives to improve environmental quality;
· Empower community groups, non-governmental organizations and individuals to assume the authority and responsibility for managing and enhancing their immediate environment through participatory tools, techniques and approaches embodied in the concept of environmental care.

7.21. Cities of all countries should reinforce cooperation among themselves and cities of the developed countries, under the aegis of non-governmental organizations active in this field, such as the International Union of Local Authorities (IULA), the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) and the World Federation of Twin Cities.

Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.22. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $100 billion, including about $15 billion from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are nonconcessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.23. Developing countries should, with appropriate international assistance, consider focusing on training and developing a cadre of urban managers, technicians, administrators and other relevant stakeholders who can successfully manage environmentally sound urban development and growth and are equipped with the skills necessary to analyse and adapt the innovative experiences of other cities. For this purpose, the full range of training methods - from formal education to the use of the mass media - should be utilized, as well as the "learning by doing" option.

7.24. Developing countries should also encourage technological training and research through joint efforts by donors, non-governmental organizations and private business in such areas as the reduction of waste, water quality, saving of energy, safe production of chemicals and less polluting transportation. 7.25. Capacity-building activities carried out by all countries, assisted as suggested above, should go beyond the training of individuals and functional groups to include institutional arrangements, administrative routines, inter-agency linkages, information flows and consultative processes.

7.26. In addition, international efforts, such as the Urban Management Programme, in cooperation with multilateral and bilateral agencies, should continue to assist the developing countries in their efforts to develop a participatory structure by mobilizing the human resources of the private sector, nongovernmental organizations and the poor, particularly women and the disadvantaged.
C. Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management Basis for action

7.27. Access to land resources is an essential component of sustainable low-impact lifestyles. Land resources are the basis for (human) living systems and provide soil, energy, water and the opportunity for all human activity. In rapidly growing urban areas, access to land is rendered increasingly difficult by the conflicting demands of industry, housing, commerce, agriculture, land tenure structures and the need for open spaces. Furthermore, the rising costs of urban land prevent the poor from gaining access to suitable land. In rural areas, unsustainable practices, such as the exploitation of marginal lands and the encroachment on forests and ecologically fragile areas by commercial interests and landless rural populations, result in environmental degradation, as well as in diminishing returns for impoverished rural settlers.
 

Objective

7.28. The objective is to provide for the land requirements of human settlement development through environmentally sound physical planning and land use so as to ensure access to land to all households and,
where appropriate, the encouragement of communally and collectively owned and managed land. 6/
Particular attention should be paid to the needs of women and indigenous people for economic and cultural
reasons.

Activities

7.29. All countries should consider, as appropriate, undertaking a comprehensive national inventory of their
land resources in order to establish a land information system in which land resources will be classified
according to their most appropriate uses and environmentally fragile or disaster-prone areas will be
identified for special protection measures.

7.30. Subsequently, all countries should consider developing national land-resource management plans to
guide land-resource development and utilization and, to that end, should:
· Establish, as appropriate, national legislation to guide the implementation of public policies for
environmentally sound urban development, land utilization, housing and for the imp roved
management of urban expansion;
· Create, where appropriate, efficient and accessible land markets that meet community
development needs by, inter alia, improving land registry systems and streamlining procedures in
land transactions;
· Develop fiscal incentives and land-use control measures, including land-use planning solutions for
a more rational and environmentally sound use of limited land resources;
· Encourage partnerships among the public, private and community sectors in managing land
resources for human settlements development;
· Strengthen community-based land-resource protection practices in existing urban and rural
settlements;
· Establish appropriate forms of land tenure that provide security of tenure for all land-users,
especially indigenous people, women, local communities, the low-income urban dwellers and the
rural poor;
· Accelerate efforts to promote access to land by the urban and rural poor, including credit schemes
for the purchase of land and for building/acquiring or improving safe and healthy shelter and
infrastructure services;
· Develop and support the implementation of improved land-management practices that deal
comprehensively with potentially competing land requirements for agriculture, industry, transport,
urban development, green spaces, preserves and other vital needs;
· Promote understanding among policy makers of the adverse consequences of unplanned
settlements in environmentally vulnerable areas and of the appropriate national and local land-use
and settlements policies required for this purpose.

7.31. At the international level, global coordination of land-resource management activities should be
strengthened by the various bilateral and multilateral agencies and programmes, such as UNDP, FAO, the
World Bank, the regional development banks, other interested organizations and the UNDP/World
Bank/Habitat Urban Management Programme, and action should be taken to promote the transfer of
applicable experience on sustainable land-management practices to and among developing countries.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $3 billion, including about $300 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and
have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are nonconcessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide
upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means

7.33. All countries, particularly developing countries, alone or in regional or subregional groupings, should
be given access to modern techniques of land-resource management, such as geographical information
systems, satellite photography/imagery and other remote-sensing technologies.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.34. Environmentally focused training activities in sustainable land-resources planning and management
should be undertaken in all countries, with developing countries being given assistance through
international support and funding agencies in order to:
· Strengthen the capacity of national, state/provincial and local educational research and training
institutions to provide formal training of land-management technicians and professionals;
· Facilitate the organizational review of government ministries and agencies responsible for land
questions, in order to devise more efficient mechanisms of land-resource management, and carry
out periodic in-service refresher courses for the managers and staff of such ministries and agencies
in order to familiarize them with up-to-date land-resource-management technologies;
· Where appropriate, provide such agencies with modern equipment, such as computer hardware
and software and survey equipment;
· Strengthen existing programmes and promote an international and interregional exchange of
information and experience in land management through the establishment of professional
associations in land-management sciences and related activities, such as workshops and seminars.
D. Promoting the integrated provision of environmental infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage
and solid-waste management
Basis for action

7.35. The sustainability of urban development is defined by many parameters relating to the availability of
water supplies, air quality and the provision of environmental infrastructure for sanitation and waste
management. As a result of the density of users, urbanization, if properly managed, offers unique
opportunities for the supply of sustainable environmental infrastructure through adequate pricing policies,
educational programmes and equitable access mechanisms that are economically and environmentally
sound. In most developing countries, however, the inadequacy and lack of environmental infrastructure is
responsible for widespread ill-health and a large number of preventable deaths each year. In those countries
conditions are set to worsen due to growing needs that exceed the capacity of Governments to respond
adequately.

7.36. An integrated approach to the provision of environmentally sound infrastructure in human
settlements, in particular for the urban and rural poor, is an investment in sustainable development that can
improve the quality of life, increase productivity, improve health and reduce the burden of investments in
curative medicine and poverty alleviation.

7.37. Most of the activities whose management would be improved by an integrated approach, are covered
in Agenda 21 as follows: chapter 6 (Protecting and promoting human health conditions), chapters 9
(Protecting the atmosphere), 18 (Protecting the quality and supply of freshwater resources) and 21
(Environmentally sound management of solid wastes and sewage-related issues).
Objective

7.38. The objective is to ensure the provision of adequate environmental infrastructure facilities in all
settlements by the year 2025. The achievement of this objective would require that all developing countries
incorporate in their national strategies programmes to build the necessary technical, financial and human
resource capacity aimed at ensuring better integration of infrastructure and environmental planning by the
year 2000.
Activities

7.39. All countries should assess the environmental suitability of infrastructure in human settlements,
develop national goals for sustainable management of waste, and implement environmentally sound
technology to ensure that the environment, human health and quality of life are protected. Settlement
infrastructure and environmental programmes designed to promote an integrated human settlements
approach to the planning, development, maintenance and management of environmental infrastructure
(water supply, sanitation, drainage, solid-waste management) should be strengthened with the assistance of
bilateral and multilateral agencies. Coordination among these agencies and with collaboration from
international and national representatives of local authorities, the private sector and community groups
should also be strengthened. The activities of all agencies engaged in providing environmental
infrastructure should, where possible, reflect an ecosystem or metropolitan area approach to settlements and
should include monitoring, applied research, capacity-building, transfer of appropriate technology and
technical cooperation among the range of programme activities.

7.40. Developing countries should be assisted at the national and local levels in adopting an integrated
approach to the provision of water supply, energy, sanitation, drainage and solid-waste management, and
external funding agencies should ensure that this approach is applied in particular to environmental
infrastructure improvement in informal settlements based on regulations and standards that take into
account the living conditions and resources of the communities to be served.

7.41. All countries should, as appropriate, adopt the following principles for the provision of environmental
infrastructure:
· Adopt policies that minimize if not altogether avoid environmental damage, whenever possible;
· Ensure that relevant decisions are preceded by environmental impact assessments and also take
into account the costs of any ecological consequences;
· Promote development in accordance with indigenous practices and adopt technologies appropriate
to local conditions;
· Promote policies aimed at recovering the actual cost of infrastructure services, while at the same
time recognizing the need to find suitable approaches (including subsidies) to extend basic
services to all households;
· Seek joint solutions to environmental problems that affect several localities.

7.42. The dissemination of information from existing programmes should be facilitated and encouraged
among interested countries and local institutions.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.43. The Conference secretariat has estimated most of the costs of implementing the activities of this
programme in other chapters. The secretariat estimates the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of
technical assistance from the international community grant or concessional terms to be about $50 million.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means

7.44. Scientific and technological means within the existing programmes should be coordinated wherever
possible and should:
· Accelerate research in the area of integrated policies of environmental infrastructure programmes
and projects based on cost/benefit analysis and overall environmental impact;
· Promote methods of assessing "effective demand", utilizing environment and development data as
criteria for selecting technology.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.45. With the assistance and support of funding agencies, all countries should, as appropriate, undertake
training and popular participation programmes aimed at:
· Raising awareness of the means, approaches and benefits of the provision of environmental
infrastructure facilities, especially among indigenous people, women, low-income groups and the
poor;
· Developing a cadre of professionals with adequate skills in integrated infrastructural service
planning and maintenance of resource-efficient, environmentally sound and socially acceptable
systems;
· Strengthening the institutional capacity of local authorities and administrators in the integrated
provision of adequate infrastructure services in partnership with local communities and the private
sector;
· Adopting appropriate legal and regulatory instruments, including cross-subsidy arrangements, to
extend the benefits of adequate and affordable environmental infrastructure to unserved population
groups, especially the poor.
E. Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in human settlements
Basis for action

7.46. Most of the commercial and non-commercial energy produced today is used in and for human
settlements, and a substantial percentage of it is used by the household sector. Developing countries are at
present faced with the need to increase their energy production to accelerate development and raise the
living standards of their populations, while at the same time reducing energy production costs and energyrelated
pollution. Increasing the efficiency of energy use to reduce its polluting effects and to promote the
use of renewable energies must be a priority in any action taken to protect the urban environment.

7.47. Developed countries, as the largest consumers of energy, are faced with the need for energy planning
and management, promoting renewable and alternate sources of energy, and evaluating the life-cycle costs
of current systems and practices as a result of which many metropolitan areas are suffering from pervasive
air quality problems related to ozone, particulate matters and carbon monoxide. The causes have much to
do with technological inadequacies and with an increasing fuel consumption generated by inefficiencies,
high demographic and industrial concentrations and a rapid expansion in the number of motor vehicles.

7.48. Transport accounts for about 30 per cent of commercial energy consumption and for about 60 per cent
of total global consumption of liquid petroleum. In developing countries, rapid motorization and
insufficient investments in urban-transport planning, traffic management and infrastructure, are creating
increasing problems in terms of accidents and injury, health, noise, congestion and loss of productivity
similar to those occurring in many developed countries. All of these problems have a severe impact on
urban populations, particularly the low-income and no-income groups.
Objectives

7.49. The objectives are to extend the provision of more energy-efficient technology and
alternative/renewable energy for human settlements and to reduce negative impacts of energy production
and use on human health and on the environment.
Activities

7.50. The principal activities relevant to this programme area are included in chapter 9 (Protection of the
atmosphere), programme area B, subprogramme 1 (Energy development, efficiency and consumption) and
subprogramme 2 (Transportation).

7.51. A comprehensive approach to human settlements development should include the promotion of
sustainable energy development in all countries, as follows:
· Developing countries, in particular, should:
· Formulate national action programmes to promote and support reafforestation and
national forest regeneration with a view to achieving sustained provision of the biomass
energy needs of the low-income groups in urban areas and the rural poor, in particular
women and children;
· Formulate national action programmes to promote integrated development of energysaving
and renewable energy technologies, particularly for the use of solar, hydro, wind
and biomass sources;
· Promote wide dissemination and commercialization of renewable energy technologies
through suitable measures, inter alia, fiscal and technology transfer mechanisms;
· Carry out information and training programmes directed at manufacturers and users in
order to promote energy-saving techniques and energy-efficient appliances;
· International organizations and bilateral donors should:
· Support developing countries in implementing national energy programmes in order to
achieve widespread use of energy-saving and renewable energy technologies, particularly
the use of solar, wind, biomass and hydro sources;
· Provide access to research and development results to increase energy-use efficiency
levels in human settlements.

7.52. Promoting efficient and environmentally sound urban transport systems in all countries should be a
comprehensive approach to urban-transport planning and management. To this end, all countries should:
· Integrate land-use and transportation planning to encourage development patterns that reduce
transport demand;
· Adopt urban-transport programmes favouring high-occupancy public transport in countries, as
appropriate;
· Encourage non-motorized modes of transport by providing safe cycleways and footways in urban
and suburban centres in countries, as appropriate;
· Devote particular attention to effective traffic management, efficient operation of public transport
and maintenance of transport infrastructure;
· Promote the exchange of information among countries and representatives of local and
metropolitan areas;
· Re-evaluate the present consumption and production patterns in order to reduce the use of energy
and national resources.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.53. The Conference secretariat has estimated the costs of implementing the activities of this programme
in chapter 9 (Protection of the atmosphere).
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.54. In order to enhance the skills of energy service and transport professionals and institutions, all
countries should, as appropriate:
· Provide on-the-job and other training of government officials, planners, traffic engineers and
managers involved in the energy-service and transport section;
· Raise public awareness of the environmental impacts of transport and travel behaviour through
mass media campaigns and support for non-governmental and community initiatives promoting
the use of non-motorized transport, shared driving and improved traffic safety measures;
· Strengthen regional, national, state/provincial, and private sector institutions that provide
education and training on energy service and urban transport planning and management.
F. Promoting human settlement planning and management in disaster-prone areas
Basis for action

7.55. Natural disasters cause loss of life, disruption of economic activities and urban productivity,
particularly for highly susceptible low-income groups, and environmental damage, such as loss of fertile
agricultural land and contamination of water resources, and can lead to major resettlement of populations.
Over the past two decades, they are estimated to have caused some 3 million deaths and affected 800
million people. Global economic losses have been estimated by the Office of the United Nations Disaster
Relief Coordinator to be in the range of $30-50 billion per year.

7.56. The General Assembly, in resolution 44/236, proclaimed the 1990s as the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction. The goals of the Decade 7/ bear relevance to the objectives of the present
programme area.

7.57. In addition, there is an urgent need to address the prevention and reduction of man-made disasters
and/or disasters caused by, inter alia, industries, unsafe nuclear power generation and toxic wastes (see
chapter 6 of Agenda 21).
Objective

7.58. The objective is to enable all countries, in particular those that are disaster-prone, to mitigate the
negative impact of natural and man-made disasters on human settlements, national economies and the
environment.
Activities

7.59. Three distinct areas of activity are foreseen under this programme area, namely, the development of a
"culture of safety", pre-disaster planning and post-disaster reconstruction.
(a) Developing a culture of safety

7.60. To promote a "culture of safety" in all countries, especially those that are disaster-prone, the
following activities should be carried out:
· Completing national and local studies on the nature and occurrence of natural disasters, their
impact on people and economic activities, the effects of inadequate construction and land use in
hazard-prone areas, and the social and economic advantages of adequate pre-disaster planning;
· Implementing nationwide and local awareness campaigns through all available media, translating
the above knowledge into information easily comprehensible to the general public and to the
populations directly exposed to hazards;
· Strengthening, and/or developing global, regional, national and local early warning systems to
alert populations to impending disasters;
· Identifying industrially based environmental disaster areas at the national and international levels
and implementing strategies aimed at the rehabilitation of these areas through, inter alia:
· Restructuring of the economic activities and promoting new job opportunities in
environmentally sound sectors;
· Promoting close collaboration between governmental and local authorities, local
communities and non-governmental organizations and private business;
· Developing and enforcing strict environmental control standards.
(b) Developing pre-disaster planning

7.61. Pre-disaster planning should form an integral part of human settlement planning in all countries. The
following should be included:
· Undertaking complete multi-hazard research into risk and vulnerability of human settlements and
settlement infrastructure, including water and sewerage, communication and transportation
networks, as one type of risk reduction may increase vulnerability to another (e.g., an earthquakeresistant
house made of wood will be more vulnerable to wind storms);
· Developing methodologies for determining risk and vulnerability within specific human
settlements and incorporating risk and vulnerability reduction into the human settlement planning
and management process;
· Redirecting inappropriate new development and human settlements to areas not prone to hazards;
· Preparing guidelines on location, design and operation of potentially hazardous industries and
activities;
· Developing tools (legal, economic etc.) to encourage disaster-sensitive development, including
means of ensuring that limitations on development options are not punitive to owners, or
incorporate alternative means of compensation;
· Further developing and disseminating information on disaster-resistant building materials and
construction technologies for buildings and public works in general;
· Developing training programmes for contractors and builders on disaster-resistant construction
methods. Some programmes should be directed particularly to small enterprises, which build the
great majority of housing and other small buildings in the developing countries, as well as to the
rural populations, which build their own houses;
· Developing training programmes for emergency site managers, non-governmental organizations
and community groups which cover all aspects of disaster mitigation, including urban search and
rescue, emergency communications, early warning techniques, and pre-disaster planning;
· Developing procedures and practices to enable local communities to receive information about
hazardous installations or situations in these areas, and facilitate their participation in early
warning and disaster abatement and response procedures and plans;
· Preparing action plans for the reconstruction of settlements, especially the reconstruction of
community life-lines.
(c) Initiating post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation planning

7.62. The international community, as a major partner in post-reconstruction and rehabilitation, should
ensure that the countries involved derive the greatest benefits from the funds allocated by undertaking the
following activities:
· Carrying out research on past experiences on the social and economic aspects of post-disaster
reconstruction and adopting effective strategies and guidelines for post-dis aster reconstruction,
with particular focus on development-focused strategies in the allocation of scarce reconstruction
resources, and on the opportunities that post-disaster reconstruction provides to introduce
sustainable settlement patterns;
· Preparing and disseminating international guidelines for adaptation to national and local needs;
· Supporting efforts of national Governments to initiate contingency planning, with participation of
affected communities, for post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.63. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $50 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means

7.64. Scientists and engineers specializing in this field in both developing and developed countries should
collaborate with urban and regional planners in order to provide the basic knowledge and means to mitigate
losses owing to disasters as well as environmentally inappropriate development.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
 

7.65. Developing countries should conduct training programmes on disaster-resistant construction methods
for contractors and builders, who build the majority of housing in the developing countries. This should
focus on the small business enterprises, which build the majority of housing in the developing countries.
7.66. Training programmes should be extended to government officials and planners and community and
non-governmental organizations to cover all aspects of disaster mitigation, such as early warning
techniques, pre-disaster planning and construction, post-disaster construction and rehabilitation.
G. Promoting sustainable construction industry activities
Basis for action

7.67. The activities of the construction sector are vital to the achievement of the national socio-economic
development goals of providing shelter, infrastructure and employment. However, they can be a major
source of environmental damage through depletion of the natural resource base, degradation of fragile ecozones,chemical pollution and the use of building materials harmful to human health.

Objectives

7.68. The objectives are, first, to adopt policies and technologies and to exchange information on them in
order to enable the construction sector to meet human settlement development goals, while avoiding
harmful side-effects on human health and on the biosphere, and, second, to enhance the employmentgeneration
capacity of the construction sector. Governments should work in close collaboration with the
private sector in achieving these objectives.
Activities

7.69. All countries should, as appropriate and in accordance with national plans, objectives and priorities:
· Establish and strengthen indigenous building materials industry, based, as much as possible, on
inputs of locally available natural resources;
· Formulate programmes to enhance the utilization of local materials by the construction sector by
expanding technical support and incentive schemes for increasing the capabilities and economic
viability of small-scale and informal operatives which make use of these materials and traditional
construction techniques;
· Adopt standards and other regulatory measures which promote the increased use of energyefficient
designs and technologies and sustainable utilization of natural resources in an
economically and environmentally appropriate way;
· Formulate appropriate land-use policies and introduce planning regulations specially aimed at the
protection of eco-sensitive zones against physical disruption by construction and constructionrelated
activities;
· Promote the use of labour-intensive construction and maintenance technologies which generate
employment in the construction sector for the underemployed labour force found in most large
cities, while at the same time promoting the development of skills in the construction sector;
· Develop policies and practices to reach the informal sector and self-help housing builders by
adopting measures to increase the affordability of building materials on the part of the urban and
rural poor, through, inter alia, credit schemes and bulk procurement of building materials for sale
to small-scale builders and communities.

7.70. All countries should:
· Promote the free exchange of information on the entire range of environmental and health aspects
of construction, including the development and dissemination of databases on the adverse
environmental effects of building materials through the collaborative efforts of the private and
public sectors;
· Promote the development and dissemination of databases on the adverse environmental and health
effects of building materials and introduce legislation and financial incentives to promote
recycling of energy-intensive materials in the construction industry and conservation of waste
energy in building-materials production methods;
· Promote the use of economic instruments, such as product charges, to discourage the use of
construction materials and products that create pollution during their life cycle;
· Promote information exchange and appropriate technology transfer among all countries, with
particular attention to developing countries, for resource management in construction, particularly
for non-renewable resources;
· Promote research in construction industries and related activities, and establish and strengthen
institutions in this sector.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.71. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $40 billion, including about $4 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and
have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are nonconcessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide
upon for implementation.
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.72. Developing countries should be assisted by international support and funding agencies in upgrading
the technical and managerial capacities of the small entrepreneur and the vocational skills of operatives and
supervisors in the building materials industry, using a variety of training methods. These countries should
also be assisted in developing programmes to encourage the use of non-waste and clean technologies
through appropriate transfer of technology.

7.73. General education programmes should be developed in all countries, as appropriate, to increase
builder awareness of available sustainable technologies.

7.74. Local authorities are called upon to play a pioneering role in promoting the increased use of
environmentally sound building materials and construction technologies, e.g., by pursuing an innovative
procurement policy.
H. Promoting human resource development and capacity-building for human settlements development Basis for action

7.75. Most countries, in addition to shortcomings in the availability of specialized expertise in the areas of
housing, settlement management, land management, infrastructure, construction, energy, transport, and predisaster planning and reconstruction, face three cross-sectoral human resource development and capacitybuilding shortfalls. First is the absence of an enabling policy environment capable of integrating the
resources and activities of the public sector, the private sector and the community, or social sector; second
is the weakness of specialized training and research institutions; and third is the insufficient capacity for
technical training and assistance for low-income communities, both urban and rural.

Objective

7.76. The objective is to improve human resource development and capacity-building in all countries by
enhancing the personal and institutional capacity of all actors, particularly indigenous people and women,
involved in human settlement development. In this regard, account should be taken of traditional cultural
practices of indigenous people and their relationship to the environment.

Activities

7.77. Specific human resource development and capacity-building activities have been built into each of the
programme areas of this chapter. More generally, however, additional steps should be taken to reinforce
those activities. In order to do so, all countries, as appropriate, should take the following action:
· Strengthening the development of human resources and of capacities of public sector institutions
through technical assistance and international cooperation so as to achieve by the year 2000
substantial improvement in the efficiency of governmental activities;
· Creating an enabling policy environment supportive of the partnership between the public, private
and community sectors;
· Providing enhanced training and technical assistance to institutions providing training for
technicians, professionals and administrators, and appointed, elected and professional members of
local governments and strengthening their capacity to address priority training needs, particularly
in regard to social, economic and environmental aspects of human settlements development;
· Providing direct assistance for human settlement development at the community level, inter alia,
by:
· Strengthening and promoting programmes for social mobilization and raising awareness
of the potential of women and youth in human settlements activities;
· Facilitating coordination of the activities of women, youth, community groups and nongovernmental
organizations in human settlements development;
· Promoting research on women's programmes and other groups, and evaluating progress
made with a view to identifying bottlenecks and needed assistance;
· Promoting the inclusion of integrated environmental management into general local government
activities.

7.78. Both international organizations and non-governmental organizations should support the above
activities by, inter alia, strengthening subregional training institutions, providing updated training materials
and disseminating the results of successful human resource and capacity-building activities, programmes
and projects.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.79. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $65 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means

7.80. Both formal training and non-formal types of human resource development and capacity-building
programmes should be combined, and use should be made of user-oriented training methods, up-to-date
training materials and modern audio-visual communication systems.
Notes
1/ No aggregate figures are available on internal expenditure or official development assistance on human
settlements. However, data available in the World Development Report, 1991, for 16 low-income
developing countries show that the percentage of central government expenditure on housing, amenities
and social security and welfare for 1989 averaged 5.6 per cent, with a high of 15.1 per cent in the case of
Sri Lanka, which has embarked on a vigorous housing programme. In OECD industrialized countries,
during the same year, the percentage of central government expenditure on housing, amenities and social
security and welfare ranged from a minimum of 29.3 per cent to a maximum of 49.4 per cent, with an
average of 39 per cent (World Bank, World Development Report, 1991, World Development Indicators,
table 11 (Washington, D.C., 1991)).
2/ See the report of the Director-General for Development and International Economic Cooperation
containing preliminary statistical data on operational activities of the United Nations system for 1988
(A/44/324-E/1989/106/Add.4, annex).
3/ World Bank, Annual Report, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991).
4/ UNDP, "Reported investment commitments related to UNDP-assisted projects, 1988", table 1, "Sectoral
distribution of investment commitment in 1988-1989".
5/ A pilot programme of this type, the City Data Programme (CDP), is already in operation in the United
Nations Centre on Human Settlements (Habitat) aimed at the production and dissemination to participating
cities of microcomputer application software designed to store, process and retrieve city data for local,
national and international exchange and dissemination.
6/ This calls for integrated land-resource management policies, which are also addressed in chapter 10 of
Agenda 21 (Integrated approach to planning and management of land resources).
7/ The goals of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, set out in the annex to Genera l
Assembly resolution 44/236, are as follows:
· To improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of natural disasters expeditiously
and effectively, paying special attention to assisting developing countries in the assessment of
disaster damage potential and in the establishment of early warning systems and disaster-resistant
structures when and where needed;
· To devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying existing scientific and technical
knowledge, taking into account the cultural and economic diversity among nations;
· To foster scientific and engineering endeavours aimed at closing critical gaps in knowledge in
order to reduce loss of life and property;
· To disseminate existing and new technical information related to measures for the assessment,
prediction and mitigation of natural disasters;
· To develop measures for the assessment, prediction, prevention and mitigation of natural disasters
through programmes of technical assistance and technology transfer, demonstration projects, and
education and training, tailored to specific disasters and locations, and to evaluate the
effectiveness of those programmes.

Chapter 21
ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTES AND SEWAGE-RELATED ISSUES

21.1. This chapter has been incorporated in Agenda 21 in response to General Assembly resolution 44/228,
section I, paragraph 3, in which the Assembly affirmed that the Conference should elaborate strategies and
measures to halt and reverse the effects of environmental degradation in the context of increased national
and international efforts to promote sustainable and environmentally sound development in all countries,
and to section I, paragraph 12 (g), of the same resolution, in which the Assembly affirmed that
environmentally sound management of wastes was among the environmental issues of major concern in
maintaining the quality of the Earth's environment and especially in achieving environmentally sound and
sustainable development in all countries.

21.2. Programme areas included in the present chapter of Agenda 21 are closely related to the following
programme areas of other chapters of Agenda 21:
· Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater resources: application of integrated approaches
to the development, management and use of water resources (chapter 18);
· Promoting sustainable human settlement development (chapter 7);
· Protecting and promoting human health conditions (chapter 6);
· Changing consumption patterns (chapter 4).

21.3. Solid wastes, as defined in this chapter, include all domestic refuse and non-hazardous wastes such as
commercial and institutional wastes, street sweepings and construction debris. In some countries, the solid
wastes management system also handles human wastes such as night-soil, ashes from incinerators, septic
tank sludge and sludge from sewage treatment plants. If these wastes manifest hazardous characteristics
they should be treated as hazardous wastes .

21.4. Environmentally sound waste management must go beyond the mere safe disposal or recovery of
wastes that are generated and seek to address the root cause of the problem by attempting to change
unsustainable patterns of production and consumption. This implies the application of the integrated life
cycle management concept, which presents a unique opportunity to reconcile development with
environmental protection.

21.5. Accordingly, the framework for requisite action should be founded on a hierarchy of objectives and
focused on the four major waste-related programme areas, as follows:
· Minimizing wastes;
· Maximizing environmentally sound waste reuse and recycling;
· Promoting environmentally sound waste disposal and treatment;
· Extending waste service coverage.

21.6. The four programme areas are interrelated and mutually supportive and must therefore be integrated
in order to provide a comprehensive and environmentally responsive framework for managing municipal
solid wastes. The mix and emphasis given to each of the four programme areas will vary according to the
local socio-economic and physical conditions, rates of waste generation and waste composition. All sectors
of society should participate in all the programme areas.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Minimizing wastes
Basis for action

21.7. Unsustainable patterns of production and consumption are increasing the quantities and variety of
environmentally persistent wastes at unprecedented rates. The trend could significantly increase the
quantities of wastes produced by the end of the century and increase quantities four to fivefold by the year
2025. A preventive waste management approach focused on changes in lifestyles and in production and
consumption patterns offers the best chance for reversing current trends.
Objectives

21.8. The objectives in this area are:
· To stabilize or reduce the production of wastes destined for final disposal, over an agreed timeframe,
by formulating goals based on waste weight, volume and composition and to induce
separation to facilitate waste recycling and reuse;
· To strengthen procedures for assessing waste quantity and composition changes for the purpose of
formulating operational waste minimization policies utilizing economic or other instruments to
induce beneficial modifications of production and consumption patterns.

21.9. Governments, according to their capacities and available resources and with the cooperation of the
United Nations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate, should:
· By the year 2000, ensure sufficient national, regional and international capacity to access, process
and monitor waste trend information and implement waste minimization policies;
· By the year 2000, have in place in all industrialized countries programmes to stabilize or reduce, if
practicable, production of wastes destined for final disposal, including per capita wastes (where
this concept applies), at the level prevailing at that date; developing countries as well should work
towards that goal without jeopardizing their development prospects;
· Apply by the year 2000, in all countries, in particular in industrialized countries, programmes to
reduce the production of agrochemical wastes, containers and packaging materials, which do not
meet hazardous characteristics.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities

21.10. Governments should initiate programmes to achieve sustained minimization of waste generation.
Non-governmental organizations and consumer groups should be encouraged to participate in such
programmes, which could be drawn up with the cooperation of international organizations, where
necessary. These programmes should, wherever possible, build upon existing or planned activities and
should:
· Develop and strengthen national capacities in research and design of environmentally sound
technologies, as well as adopt measures to reduce wastes to a minimum;
· Provide for incentives to reduce unsustainable patterns of production and consumption;
· Develop, where necessary, national plans to minimize waste generation as part of overall national
development plans;
· Emphasize waste minimization considerations in procurement within the United Nations system.
(b) Data and information

21.11. Monitoring is a key prerequisite for keeping track of changes in waste quantity and quality and their
resultant impact on health and the environment. Governments, with the support of international agencies,
should:
· Develop and apply methodologies for country-level waste monitoring;
· Undertake data gathering and analysis, establish national goals and monitor progress;
· Utilize data to assess environmental soundness of national waste policies as a basis for corrective
action;
· Input information into global information systems.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

21.12. The United Nations and intergovernmental organizations, with the collaboration of Governments,
should help promote waste minimization by facilitating greater exchange of information, know-how and
experience. The following is a non-exhaustive list of specific activities that could be undertaken:
· Identifying, developing and harmonizing methodologies for waste monitoring and transferring
such methodologies to countries;
· Identifying and further developing the activities of existing information networks on clean
technologies and waste minimization;
· Undertaking periodic assessment, collating and analysing country data and reporting
systematically, in an appropriate United Nations forum, to the countries concerned;
· Reviewing the effectiveness of all waste minimization instruments and identifying potential new
instruments that could be used and techniques by which they could be made operational at the
country level. Guidelines and codes of practice should be developed;
· Undertaking research on the social and economic impacts of waste minimization at the consumer
level.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

21.13. The Conference secretariat suggests that industrialized countries should consider investing in waste
minimization the equivalent of about 1 per cent of the expenditures on solid wastes and sewage disposal. At
current levels, this would amount to about $6.5 billion annually, including about $1.8 billion related to
minimizing municipal solid wastes. Actual amounts would be determined by relevant municipal, provincial
and national budget authorities based on local circumstances.
(b) Scientific and technological means

21.14. Waste minimization technologies and procedures will need to be identified and widely disseminated.
This work should be coordinated by national Governments, with the cooperation and collaboration of nongovernmental
organizations, research institutions and appropriate organizations of the United Nations, and
could include the following:
· Undertaking a continuous review of the effectiveness of all waste minimization instruments and
identifying potential new instruments that could be used and techniques by which instruments
could be made operational at the country level. Guidelines and codes of practice should be
developed;
· Promoting waste prevention and minimization as the principal objective of national waste
management programmes;
· Promoting public education and a range of regulatory and non-regulatory incentives to encourage
industry to change product design and reduce industrial process wastes through cleaner production
technologies and good housekeeping practices and to encourage industries and consumers to use
types of packaging that can be safely reused;
· Executing, in accordance with national capacities, demonstration and pilot programmes to
optimize waste minimization instruments;
· Establishing procedures for adequate transport, storage, conservation and management of
agricultural products, foodstuffs and other perishable goods in order to reduce the loss of those
products, which results in the production of solid waste;
· Facilitating the transfer of waste-reduction technologies to industry, particularly in developing
countries, and establishing concrete national standards for effluents and solid waste, taking into
account, inter alia, raw material use and energy consumption.
(c) Human resource development

21.15. Human resource development for waste minimization not only should be targeted at professionals in
the waste management sector but also should seek to obtain the support of citizens and industry. Human
resource development programmes must therefore aim to raise consciousness and educate and inform
concerned groups and the public in general. Countries should incorporate within school curricula, where
appropriate, the principles and practices of preventing and minimizing wastes and material on the
environmental impacts of waste.
B. Maximizing environmentally sound waste reuse and recycling
Basis for action

21.16. The exhaustion of traditional disposal sites, stricter environmental controls governing waste disposal
and increasing quantities of more persistent wastes, particularly in industrialized countries, have all
contributed to a rapid increase in the cost of waste disposal services. Costs could double or triple by the end
of the decade. Some current disposal practices pose a threat to the environment. As the economics of waste
disposal services change, waste recycling and resource recovery are becoming increasingly cost-effective.
Future waste management programmes should take maximum advantage of resource-efficient approaches
to the control of wastes. These activities should be carried out in conjunction with public education
programmes. It is important that markets for products from reclaimed materials be identified in the
development of reuse and recycling programmes.
Objectives

21.17. The objectives in this area are:
· To strengthen and increase national waste reuse and recycling systems;
· To create a model internal waste reuse and recycling programme for waste streams, including
paper, within the United Nations system;
· To make available information, techniques and appropriate policy instruments to encourage and
make operational waste reuse and recycling schemes.
21.18. Governments, according to their capacities and available resources and with the cooperation of the
United Nations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate, should:
· By the year 2000, promote sufficient financial and technological capacities at the regional,
national and local levels , as appropriate, to implement waste reuse and recycling policies and
actions;
· By the year 2000, in all industrialized countries, and by the year 2010, in all developing countries,
have a national programme, including, to the extent possible, targets for efficient waste reuse and
recycling.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities

21.19. Governments and institutions and non-governmental organizations, including consumer, women's
and youth groups, in collaboration with appropriate organizations of the United Nations system, should
launch programmes to demonstrate and make operational enhanced waste reuse and recycling. These
programmes should, wherever possible, build upon existing or planned activities and should:
· Develop and strengthen national capacity to reuse and recycle an increasing proportion of wastes;
· Review and reform national waste policies to provide incentives for waste reuse and recycling;
· Develop and implement national plans for waste management that take advantage of, and give
priority to, waste reuse and recycling;
· Modify existing standards or purchase specifications to avoid discrimination against recycled
materials, taking into account the saving in energy and raw materials;
· Develop public education and awareness programmes to promote the use of recycled products.
(b) Data and information

21.20. Information and research is required to identify promising socially acceptable and cost-effective
forms of waste reuse and recycling relevant to each country. For example, supporting activities undertaken
by national and local governments in collaboration with the United Nations and other international
organizations could include:
· Undertaking an extensive review of options and techniques for reuse and recycling all forms of
municipal solid wastes. Policies for reuse and recycling should be made an integral component of
national and local waste management programmes;
· Assessing the extent and practice of waste reuse and recycling operations currently undertaken and
identifying ways by which these could be increased and supported;
· Increasing funding for research pilot programmes to test various options for reuse and recycling,
including the use of small-scale, cottage-based recycling industries; compost production; treated
waste-water irrigation; and energy recovery from wastes;
· Producing guidelines and best practices for waste reuse and recycling;
· Intensifying efforts, at collecting, analysing and disseminating, to key target groups, relevant
information on waste issues. Special research grants could be made available on a competitive
basis for innovative research projects on recycling techniques;
· Identifying potential markets for recycled products.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

21.21. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, including through the United Nations and
other relevant international organizations, as appropriate, should:
· Undertake a periodic review of the extent to which countries reuse and recycle their wastes;
· Review the effectiveness of techniques for and approaches to waste reuse and recycling and ways
of enhancing their application in countries;
· Review and update international guidelines for the safe reuse of wastes;
· Establish appropriate programmes to support small communities' waste reuse and recycling
industries in developing countries.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

21.22. The Conference secretariat has estimated that if the equivalent of 1 per cent of waste-related
municipal expenditures was devoted to safe waste reuse schemes, worldwide expenditures for this purpose
would amount to $8 billion. The secretariat estimates the total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the
activities of this programme area in developing countries to be about $850 million on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific programmes proposed by international institutions and approved by their governing
bodies.
(b) Scientific and technological means

21.23. The transfer of technology should support waste recycling and reuse by the following means:
· Including the transfer of recycling technologies, such as machinery for reusing plastics, rubber and
paper, within bilateral and multilateral technical cooperation and aid programmes;
· Developing and improving existing technologies, especially indigenous technologies, and
facilitating their transfer under ongoing regional and interregional technical assistance
programmes;
· Facilitating the transfer of waste reuse and recycling technology.

21.24. Incentives for waste reuse and recycling are numerous. Countries could consider the following
options to encourage industry, institutions, commercial establishments and individuals to recycle wastes
instead of disposing of them:
· Offering incentives to local and municipal authorities that recycle the maximum proportion of
their wastes;
· Providing technical assistance to informal waste reuse and recycling operations;
· Applying economic and regulatory instruments, including tax incentives, to support the principle
that generators of wastes pay for their disposal;
· Providing legal and economic conditions conducive to investments in waste reuse and recycling;
· Implementing specific mechanisms such as deposit/refund systems as incentives for reuse and
recycling;
· Promoting the separate collection of recyclable parts of household wastes;
· Providing incentives to improve the marketability of technically recyclable waste;
· Encouraging the use of recyclable materials, particularly in packaging, where feasible;
· Encouraging the development of markets for recycled goods by establishing programmes.
(c) Human resource development

21.25. Training will be required to reorient current waste management practices to include waste reuse and
recycling. Governments, in collaboration with United Nations international and regional organizations,
should undertake the following indicative list of actions:
· Including waste reuse and recycling in in-service training programmes as integral components of
technical cooperation programmes on urban management and infrastructure development;
· Expanding training programmes on water supply and sanitation to incorporate techniques and
policies for waste reuse and recycling;
· Including the advantages and civic obligations associated with waste reuse and recycling in school
curricula and relevant general educational courses;
· Encouraging non-governmental organizations, community-based organizations and women's,
youth and public interest group programmes, in collaboration with local municipal authorities, to
mobilize community support for waste reuse and recycling through focused community-level
campaigns.
(d) Capacity-building

21.26. Capacity-building to support increased waste reuse and recycling should focus on the following
areas:
· Making operational national policies and incentives for waste management;
· Enabling local and municipal authorities to mobilize community support for waste reuse and
recycling by involving and assisting informal sector waste reuse and recycling operations and
undertaking waste management planning that incorporates resource recovery practices.
C. Promoting environmentally sound waste disposal and treatment
Basis for action

21.27. Even when wastes are minimized, some wastes will still remain. Even after treatment, all discharges
of wastes have some residual impact on the receiving environment. Consequently, there is scope for
improving waste treatment and disposal practices such as, for example, avoiding the discharge of sludges at
sea. In developing countries, the problem is of a more fundamental nature: less than 10 per cent of urban
wastes receive some form of treatment and only a small proportion of treatment is in compliance with any
acceptable quality standard. Faecal matter treatment and disposal should be accorded due priority given the
potential threat of faeces to human health.
Objectives

21.28. The objective in this area is to treat and safely dispose of a progressively increasing proportion of
the generated wastes.

21.29. Governments, according to their capacities and available resources and with the cooperation of the
United Nations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate, should:
· By the year 2000, establish waste treatment and disposal quality criteria, objectives and standards
based on the nature and assimilative capacity of the receiving environment;
· By the year 2000, establish sufficient capacity to undertake waste-related pollution impact
monitoring and conduct regular surveillance, including epidemiological surveillance, where
appropriate;
· By the year 1995, in industrialized countries, and by the year 2005, in developing countries,
ensure that at least 50 per cent of all sewage, waste waters and solid wastes are treated or disposed
of in conformity with national or international environmental and health quality guidelines;
· By the year 2025, dispose of all sewage, waste waters and solid wastes in conformity with national
or international environmental quality guidelines.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities

21.30. Governments, institutions and non-governmental organizations, together with industries, in
collaboration with appropriate organizations of the United Nations system, should launch programmes to
improve the control and management of waste-related pollution. These programmes should, wherever
possible, build upon existing or planned activities and should:
· Develop and strengthen national capacity to treat and safely dispose of wastes;
· Review and reform national waste management policies to gain control over waste-related
pollution;
· Encourage countries to seek waste disposal solutions within their sovereign territory and as close
as possible to the sources of origin that are compatible with environmentally sound and efficient
management. In a number of countries, transboundary movements take place to ensure that wastes
are managed in an environmentally sound and efficient way. Such movements observe the relevant
conventions, including those that apply to areas that are not under national jurisdiction;
· Develop human wastes management plans, giving due attention to the development and
application of appropriate technologies and the availability of resources for implementation.
(b) Data and information

21.31. Standard setting and monitoring are two key elements essential for gaining control over wasterelated
pollution. The following specific activities are indicative of the kind of supportive actions that could
be taken by international bodies such as the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), the
United Nations Environment Programme and the World Health Organization:
· Assembling and analysing the scientific evidence and pollution impacts of wastes in the
environment in order to formulate and disseminate recommended scientific criteria and guidelines
for the environmentally sound management of solid wastes;
· Recommending national and, where relevant, local environmental quality standards based on
scientific criteria and guidelines;
· Including within technical cooperation programmes and agreements the provision for monitoring
equipment and for the requisite training in its use;
· Establishing an information clearing-house with extensive networks at the regional, national and
local levels to collect and disseminate information on all aspects of waste management, including
safe disposal.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

21.32. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, including through the United Nations and
other relevant international organizations, as appropriate, should:
· Identify, develop and harmonize methodologies and environmental quality and health guidelines
for safe waste discharge and disposal;
· Review and keep abreast of developments and disseminate information on the effectiveness of
techniques and approaches to safe waste disposal and ways of supporting their application in
countries.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

21.33. Safe waste disposal programmes are relevant to both developed and developing countries. In
developed countries the focus is on improving facilities to meet higher environmental quality criteria, while
in developing countries considerable investment is required to build new treatment facilities.
21.34. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme in developing countries to be about $15 billion, including about $3.4
billion from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-ofmagnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means

21.35. Scientific guidelines and research on various aspects of waste-related pollution control will be
crucial for achieving the objectives of this programme. Governments, municipalities and local authorities,
with appropriate international cooperation, should:
· Prepare guidelines and technical reports on subjects such as the integration of land-use planning in
human settlements with waste disposal, environmental quality criteria and standards, waste
treatment and safe disposal options, industrial waste treatment and landfill operations;
· Undertake research on critical subjects such as low-cost, low-maintenance waste-water treatment
systems; safe sludge disposal options; industrial waste treatment; and low-technology,
ecologically safe waste disposal options;
· Transfer technologies, in conformity with the terms as well as the provisions of chapter 34
(Transfer of environmentally sound technology, cooperation and capacity-building), on industrial
waste treatment processes through bilateral nad multilateral technical cooperation programmes and
in cooperation with business and industry, including large and transnational corporations, as
appropriate.
· Focus on the rehabilitation, operation and maintenance of existing facilities and technical
assistance on improved maintenance practices and techniques followed by the planning and
construction of waste treatment facilities;
· Establish programmes to maximize the source segregation and safe disposal of the hazardous
components of municipal solid waste;
· Ensure the investment and provision of waste collection facilities with the concomitant provision
of water services and with an equal and parallel investment and provision of waste treatment
facilities.
(c) Human resource development

21.36. Training would be required to improve current waste management practices to include safe
collection and waste disposal. The following is an indicative list of actions that should be taken by
Governments, in collaboration with international organizations:
· Providing both formal and in-service training, focused on pollution control, waste treatment and
disposal technologies, and operating and maintaining waste-related infrastructure. Intercountry
staff exchange programmes should also be established;
· Undertaking the requisite training for waste-related pollution monitoring and control enforcement.
(d) Capacity-building

21.37. Institutional reforms and capacity-building will be indispensable if countries are to be able to
quantify and mitigate waste-related pollution. Activities to achieve this objective should include:
· Creating and strengthening independent environmental control bodies at the national and local
levels. International organizations and donors should support needed upgrading of manpower
skills and provision of equipment;
· Empowering of pollution control agencies with the requisite legal mandate and financial capacities
to carry out their duties effectively.
D. Extending waste service coverage
Basis for action

21.38. By the end of the century, over 2.0 billion people will be without access to basic sanitation, and an
estimated half of the urban population in developing countries will be without adequate solid waste
disposal services. As many as 5.2 million people, including 4 million children under five years of age, die
each year from waste-related diseases. The health impacts are particularly severe for the urban poor. The
health and environmental impacts of inadequate waste management, however, go beyond the unserved
settlements themselves and result in water, land and air contamination and pollution over a wider area.
Extending and improving waste collection and safe disposal services are crucial to gaining control over this
form of pollution.
Objectives

21.39. The overall objective of this programme is to provide health-protecting, environmentally safe waste
collection and disposal services to all people. Governments, according to their capacities and available
resources and with the cooperation of the United Nations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate,
should:
· By the year 2000, have the necessary technical, financial and human resource capacity to provide
waste collection services commensurate with needs;
· By the year 2025, provide all urban populations with adequate waste services;
· By the year 2025, ensure that full urban waste service coverage is maintained and sanitation
coverage achieved in all rural areas.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities

21.40. Governments, according to their capacities and available resources and with the cooperation of the
United Nations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate, should:
· Establish financing mechanisms for waste management service development in deprived areas,
including appropriate modes of revenue generation;
· Apply the "polluter pays" principle, where appropriate, by setting waste management charges at
rates that reflect the costs of providing the service and ensure that those who generate the wastes
pay the full cost of disposal in an environmentally safe way;
· Encourage institutionalization of communities' participation in planning and implementation
procedures for solid waste management.
(b) Data and information

21.41. Governments, in collaboration with the United Nations and international organizations, should
undertake the following:
· Developing and applying methodologies for waste monitoring;
· Data gathering and analysis to establish goals and monitor progress;
· Inputting information into a global information system building upon existing systems;
· Strengthening the activities of existing information networks in order to disseminate focused
information on the application of innovative and low-cost alternatives for waste disposal to
targeted audiences.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

21.42. Many United Nations and bilateral programmes exist that seek to provide water supply and
sanitation services to the unserved. The Water and Sanitation Collaborative Council, a global forum,
currently acts to coordinate development and encourage cooperation. Even so, given the ever-increasing
numbers of unserved urban poor populations and the need to address, in addition, the problem of solid
waste disposal, additional mechanisms are essential to ensure accelerated coverage of urban waste disposal
services. The international community in general and selected United Nations organizations in particular
should:
· Launch a settlement infrastructure and environment programme following the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development to coordinate the activities of all organizations of
the United Nations system involved in this area and include a clearing-house for information
dissemination on all waste management issues;
· Undertake and systematically report on progress in providing waste services to those without such
services;
· Review the effectiveness of techniques for and approaches to increasing coverage and identify
innovative ways of accelerating the process.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

21.43. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing
the activities of this programme to be about $7.5 billion, including about $2.6 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and
have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are nonconcessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide
upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means

21.44. Governments and institutions, together with non-governmental organizations, should, in
collaboration with appropriate organizations of the United Nations system, launch programmes in different
parts of the developing world to extend waste services to the unserved populations. These programmes
should, wherever possible, build upon and reorient existing or planned activities.

21.45. Policy changes at the national and local levels could enhance the rate of waste service coverage
extension. These changes should include the following:
· Giving full recognition to and using the full range of low-cost options for waste management,
including, where appropriate, their institutionalization and incorporation within codes of practice
and regulation;
· Assigning high priority to the extension of waste management services, as necessary and
appropriate, to all settlements irrespective of their legal status, giving due emphasis to meeting the
waste disposal needs of the unserved, especially the unserved urban poor;
· Integrating the provision and maintenance of waste management services with other basic services
such as water-supply and storm-water drainage.

21.46. Research activities could be enhanced. Countries, in cooperation with appropriate international
organizations and non-governmental organizations, should, for instance:
· Find solutions and equipment for managing wastes in areas of concentrated populations and on
small islands. In particular, there is a need for appropriate refuse storage and collection systems
and cost-effective and hygienic human waste disposal options;
· Prepare and disseminate guidelines, case-studies, policy reviews and technical reports on
appropriate solutions and modes of service delivery to unserved low-income areas;
· Launch campaigns to encourage active community participation involving women's and youth
groups in the management of waste, particularly household waste;
· Promote intercountry transfer of relevant technologies, especially technologies for high-density
settlements.
(c) Human resource development

21.47. International organizations and national and local Governments, in collaboration with nongovernmental
organizations, should provide focused training on low-cost waste collection and disposal
options, particularly techniques for their planning and delivery. Intercountry staff exchange programmes
among developing countries could form part of such training. Particular attention should be given to
upgrading the status and skills of management-level personnel in waste management agencies.

21.48. Improvements in management techniques are likely to yield the greatest returns in terms of
improving waste management service efficiency. The United Nations, international organizations and
financial institutions should, in collaboration with national and local Governments, develop and render
operational management information systems for municipal record keeping and accounting and for
efficiency and effectiveness assessment.
(d) Capacity-building

21.49. Governments, institutions and non-governmental organizations, with the collaboration of appropriate
organizations of the United Nations system, should develop capacities to implement programmes to
provide waste collection and disposal services to the unserved populations. Some activities under the
programmes should include the following:
· Establishing a special unit within current institutional arrangements to plan and deliver services to
the unserved poor communities, with their involvement and participation;
· Making revisions to existing codes and regulations to permit the use of the full range of low-cost
alternative technologies for waste disposal;
· Building institutional capacity and developing procedures for undertaking service planning and
delivery.

Chapter 28
LOCAL AUTHORITIES' INITIATIVES IN SUPPORT OF AGENDA 21
PROGRAMME AREA
Basis for action

28.1. Because so many of the problems and solutions being addressed by Agenda 21 have their roots in
local activities, the participation and cooperation of local authorities will be a determining factor in
fulfilling its objectives. Local authorities construct, operate and maintain economic, social and
environmental infrastructure, oversee planning processes, establish local environmental policies and
regulations, and assist in implementing national and subnational environmental policies. As the level of
governance closest to the people, they play a vital role in educating, mobilizing and responding to the
public to promote sustainable development.
Objectives

28.2. The following objectives are proposed for this programme area:
· By 1996, most local authorities in each country should have undertaken a consultative process
with their populations and achieved a consensus on "a local Agenda 21" for the community;
· By 1993, the international community should have initiated a consultative process aimed at
increasing cooperation between local authorities;
· By 1994, representatives of associations of cities and other local authorities should have increased
levels of cooperation and coordination with the goal of enhancing the exchange of information and
experience among local authorities;
· All local authorities in each country should be encouraged to implement and monitor programmes
which aim at ensuring that women and youth are represented in decision-making, p lanning and
implementation processes.
Activities

28.3. Each local authority should enter into a dialogue with its citizens, local organizations and private
enterprises and adopt "a local Agenda 21". Through consultation and consensus-building, local authorities
would learn from citizens and from local, civic, community, business and industrial organizations and
acquire the information needed for formulating the best strategies. The process of consultation would
increase household awareness of sustainable development issues. Local authority programmes, policies,
laws and regulations to achieve Agenda 21 objectives would be assessed and modified, based on local
programmes adopted. Strategies could also be used in supporting proposals for local, national, regional and
international funding.

28.4. Partnerships should be fostered among relevant organs and organizations such as UNDP, the United
Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and UNEP, the World Bank, regional banks, the
International Union of Local Authorities, the World Association of the Major Metropolises, Summit of
Great Cities of the World, the United Towns Organization and other relevant partners, with a view to
mobilizing increased international support for local authority programmes. An important goal would be to
support, extend and improve existing institutions working in the field of local authority capacity-building
and local environment management. For this purpose:
· Habitat and other relevant organs and organizations of the United Nations system are called upon
to strengthen services in collecting information on strategies of local authorities, in particular for
those that need international support;
· Periodic consultations involving both international partners and developing countries could review
strategies and consider how such international support could best be mobilized. Such a sectoral
consultation would complement concurrent country-focused consultations, such as those taking
place in consultative groups and round tables.

28.5. Representatives of associations of local authorities are encouraged to establish processes to increase
the exchange of information, experience and mutual technical assistance among local authorities.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation

28.6. It is recommended that all parties reassess funding needs in this area. The Conference secretariat has
estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) for strengthening international secretariat services for
implementing the activities in this chapter to be about $1 million on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building

28.7. This programme should facilitate the capacity-building and training activities already contained in
other chapters of Agenda 21.