PROTOCOL TO THE 1979
CONVENTION ON LONG-RANGE TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION
CONCERNING THE CONTROL OF EMISSIONS OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
OR THEIR TRANSBOUNDARY FLUXES (1991)
The Parties,
Determined to implement the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution,
Concerned that present emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
the resulting secondary photochemical oxidant products are causing
damage, in exposed parts of Europe and North America, to natural
resources of vital environmental and economic importance and, under
certain exposure conditions, have harmful effects on human health,
Noting that under the Protocol concerning the Control of Emissions of
Nitrogen Oxides or their Transboundary Fluxes, adopted in Sofia on 31
October 1988, there is already agreement to reduce emissions of oxides of
nitrogen,
Recognizing the contribution of VOCs and nitrogen oxides to the formation
of tropospheric ozone,
Recognizing also that VOCs, nitrogen oxides and resulting ozone are
transported across international boundaries, affecting air quality in
neighbouring States,
Aware that the mechanism of photochemical oxidant creation is such that
the reduction of emissions of VOCs is necessary in order to reduce the
incidence of photochemical oxidants,
Further aware that methane and carbon monoxide emitted by human
activities are present at background levels in the air over the ECE
region and contribute to the formation of episodic peak ozone levels;
that, in addition, their global-scale oxidation in the presence of
nitrogen oxides contributes to the formation of the background levels of
tropospheric ozone upon which photochemical episodes are superimposed;
and that methane is expected to become the subject of control actions in
other forums,
Recalling that the Executive Body for the Convention identified at its
sixth session the need to control emissions of VOCs or their
transboundary fluxes, as well as to control the incidence of
photochemical oxidants, and the need for Parties that had already reduced
these emissions to maintain and review their emission standards for VOCs,
Acknowledging the measures already taken by some Parties which have had
the effect of reducing their national annual emissions of nitrogen oxides
and VOCs,
Noting that some Parties have set air quality standards and/or objectives
for tropospheric ozone and that standards for tropospheric ozone
concentrations have been set by the World Health Organization and other
competent bodies,
Determined to take effective action to control and reduce national annual
emissions of VOCs or the transboundary fluxes of VOCs and the resulting
secondary photochemical oxidant products, in particular by applying
appropriate national or international emission standards to new mobile
and new stationary sources and retrofitting existing major stationary
sources, and also by limiting the content of components in products for
industrial and domestic use that have the potential to emit VOCs,
Conscious that volatile organic compounds differ greatly from each other
in their reactivity and in their potential to create tropospheric ozone
and other photochemical oxidants and that, for any individual compounds,
potential may vary from time to time and from place to place depending on
meteorological and other factors,
Recognizing that such differences and variations should be taken into
consideration if action to control and reduce emissions and transboundary
fluxes of VOCs is to be as effective as possible in minimizing the
formation of tropospheric ozone and other photochemical oxidants,
Taking into consideration existing scientific and technical data on
emissions, atmospheric movements and effects on the environment of VOCs
and photochemical oxidants, as well as on control technologies,
Recognizing that scientific and technical knowledge of these matters is
developing and that it will be necessary to take such developments into
account when reviewing the operation of the present Protocol and deciding
on further action,
Noting that the elaboration of an approach based on critical levels is
aimed at the establishment of an effect-oriented scientific basis to be
taken into account when reviewing the operation of the present
Protocol, and at deciding on further internationally agreed measures to
limit and reduce emissions of VOCs or the transboundary fluxes of VOCs
and photochemical oxidants,
Have agreed as follows:
Article 1
DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of the present Protocol,
1."Convention" means the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution, adopted in Geneva on 13 November 1979;
2."EMEP" means the Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of
the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe;
3."Executive Body" means the Executive Body for the Convention
constituted under article 10, paragraph 1, of the Convention;
4."Geographical scope of EMEP" means the area defined in article 1,
paragraph 4, of the Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-range
Transboundary Air Pollution on Long-term Financing of the Cooperative
Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of
Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP), adopted in Geneva on 28 September 1984;
5."Tropospheric ozone management area" (TOMA) means an area specified in
annex I under conditions laid down in article 2, paragraph 2 (b);
6."Parties" means, unless the context otherwise requires, the Parties to
the present Protocol;
7."Commission" means the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe;
8."Critical levels" means concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere
for a specified exposure time below which direct adverse effects on
receptors, such as human beings, plants, ecosystems or materials do not
occur according to present knowledge;
9."Volatile organic compounds", or "VOCs", means, unless otherwise
specified, all organic compounds of anthropogenic nature, other than
methane, that are capable of producing photochemical oxidants by
reactions with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight;
10."Major source category" means any category of sources which emit air
pollutants in the form of VOCs, including the categories described in
annexes II and III, and which contribute at least 1% of the total
national emissions of VOCs on an annual basis, as measured or calculated
in the first calendar year after the date of entry into force of the
present Protocol, and every fourth year thereafter;
11."New stationary source" means any stationary source of which the
construction or substantial modification is commenced after the expiry of
two years from the date of entry into force of the present Protocol;
12."New mobile source" means any on-road motor vehicle which is
manufactured after the expiry of two years from the date of entry into
force of the present Protocol;
13."Photochemical ozone creation potential" (POCP) means the potential of
an individual VOC, relative to that of other VOCs, to form ozone by
reaction with oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight, as
described in annex IV.
Article 2
BASIC OBLIGATIONS
1. The Parties shall control and reduce their emissions of VOCs in order
to reduce their transboundary fluxes and the fluxes of the resulting
secondary photochemical oxidant products so as to protect human health
and the environment from adverse effects.
2. Each Party shall, in order to meet the requirements of paragraph 1
above, control and reduce its national annual emissions of VOCs or their
transboundary fluxes in any one of the following ways to be specified
upon signature:
(a) It shall, as soon as possible and as a first step, take effective
measures to reduce its national annual emissions of VOCs by at least 30%
by the year 1999, using 1988 levels as a basis or any other annual level
during the period 1984 to 1990, which it may specify upon signature of or
accession to the present Protocol; or
(b) Where its annual emissions contribute to tropospheric ozone
concentrations in areas under the jurisdiction of one or more other
Parties, and such emissions originate only from areas under its
jurisdiction that are specified as TOMAs in annex I, it shall, as soon as
possible and as a first step, take effective measures to:
(i) Reduce its annual emissions of VOCs from the areas so
specified by at least 30% by the year 1999, using 1988 levels
as a basis or any other annual level during the period
1984-1990, which it may specify upon signature of or
accession to the present Protocol; and
(ii) Ensure that its total national annual emissions of VOCs by
the year 1999 do not exceed the 1988 levels; or
(c) Where its national annual emissions of VOCs were in 1988 lower
than 500,000 tonnes and 20 kg/inhabitant and 5 tonnes/km2, it shall, as
soon as possible and as a first step, take effective measures to ensure
at least that at the latest by the year 1999 its national annual
emissions of VOCs do not exceed the 1988 levels.
3. (a) Furthermore, no later than two years after the date of entry into
force of the present Protocol, each Party shall:
(i) Apply appropriate national or international emission
standards to new stationary sources based on the best
available technologies which are economically feasible,
taking into consideration annex II;
(ii) Apply national or international measures to products that
contain solvents and promote the use of products that are low
in or do not contain VOCs, taking into consideration annex
II, including the labeling of products specifying their VOC
content;
(iii) Apply appropriate national or international emission
standards to new mobile sources based on the best available
technologies which are economically feasible, taking into
consideration annex III; and
(iv) Foster public participation in emission control programmes
through public announcements, encouraging the best use of all
modes of transportation and promoting traffic management
schemes.
(b) Furthermore, no later than five years after the date of entry into
force of the present Protocol, in those areas in which national or
international tropospheric ozone standards are exceeded or where
transboundary fluxes originate or are expected to originate, each Party
shall:
(i) Apply the best available technologies that are economically
feasible to existing stationary sources in major source
categories, taking into consideration annex II;
(ii) Apply techniques to reduce VOC emissions from petrol
distribution and motor vehicle refueling operations, and to
reduce volatility of petrol, taking into consideration
annexes II and III.
4. In carrying out their obligations under this article, Parties are
invited to give highest priority to reduction and control of emissions of
substances with the greatest POCP, taking into consideration the
information contained in annex IV.
5. In implementing the present Protocol, and in particular any product
substitution measures, Parties shall take appropriate steps to ensure
that toxic and carcinogenic VOCs, and those that harm the stratospheric
ozone layer, are not substituted for other VOCs.
6. The Parties shall, as a second step, commence negotiations, no later
than six months after the date of entry into force of the present
Protocol, on further steps to reduce national annual emissions of
volatile organic compounds or transboundary fluxes of such emissions and
their resulting secondary photochemical oxidant products, taking into
account the best available scientific and technological developments,
scientifically determined critical levels and internationally accepted
target levels, the role of nitrogen oxides in the formation of
photochemical oxidants and other elements resulting from the work
programme undertaken under article 5.
7. To this end, the Parties shall cooperate in order to establish:
(a) More detailed information on the individual VOCs and their POCP
values;
(b) Critical levels for photochemical oxidants;
(c) Reductions in national annual emissions or transboundary fluxes of
VOCs and their resulting secondary photochemical oxidant products,
especially as required to achieve agreed objectives based on critical
levels;
(d) Control strategies, such as economic instruments, to obtain
overall cost-effectiveness to achieve agreed objectives;
(e) Measures and a timetable commencing no later than 1 January 2000
for achieving such reductions.
8. In the course of these negotiations, the Parties shall consider
whether it would be appropriate for the purposes specified in paragraph 1
to supplement such further steps with measures to reduce methane.
Article 3
FURTHER MEASURES
1. Measures required by the present Protocol shall not relieve Parties
from their other obligations to take measures to reduce total gaseous
emissions that may contribute significantly to climate change, to the
formation of tropospheric background ozone or to the depletion of
stratospheric ozone, or that are toxic or carcinogenic.
2. Parties may take more stringent measures than those required by the
present Protocol.
3. The Parties shall establish a mechanism for monitoring compliance with
the present Protocol. As a first step based on information provided
pursuant to article 8 or other information, any Party which has reason to
believe that another Party is acting or has acted in a manner
inconsistent with its obligations under this Protocol may inform the
Executive Body to that effect and, simultaneously, the Parties concerned.
At the request of any Party, the matter may be taken up at the next
meeting of the Executive Body.
Article 4
EXCHANGE OF TECHNOLOGY
1. The Parties shall, consistent with their national laws, regulations
and practices, facilitate the exchange of technology to reduce emissions
of VOCs, particularly through the promotion of:
(a) The commercial exchange of available technology;
(b) Direct industrial contacts and cooperation, including joint
ventures;
(c) The exchange of information and experience;
(d) The provision of technical assistance.
2. In promoting the activities specified in paragraph 1 of this article,
the Parties shall create favourable conditions by facilitating contacts
and cooperation among appropriate organizations and individuals in the
private and public sectors that are capable of providing technology,
design and engineering services, equipment or finance.
3. The Parties shall, no later than six months after the date of entry
into force of the present Protocol, commence consideration of procedures
to create more favourable conditions for the exchange of technology to
reduce emissions of VOCs.
Article 5
RESEARCH AND MONITORING TO BE UNDERTAKEN
The Parties shall give high priority to research and monitoring related
to the development and application of methods to achieve national or
international tropospheric ozone standards and other goals to protect
human health and the environment. The Parties shall, in particular,
through national or international research programmes, in the work-plan
of the Executive Body and through other cooperative programmes within the
framework of the Convention, seek to:
(a) Identify and quantify effects of emissions of VOCs, both
anthropogenic and biogenic, and photochemical oxidants on human health,
the environment and materials;
(b) Determine the geographical distribution of sensitive areas;
(c) Develop emission and air quality monitoring and model calculations
including methodologies for the calculation of emissions, taking into
account, as far as possible, the different VOC species, both
anthropogenic and biogenic, and their reactivity, to quantify the
long-range transport of VOCs, both anthropogenic and biogenic, and
related pollutants involved in the formation of photochemical oxidants;
(d) Improve estimates of the performance and costs of technologies for
control of emissions of VOCs and record the development of improved and
new technologies;
(e) Develop, within the context of the approach based on critical
levels, methods to integrate scientific, technical and economic data in
order to determine appropriate rational strategies for limiting VOC
emissions and obtain overall cost-effectiveness to achieve agreed
objectives;
(f) Improve the accuracy of inventories of emissions of VOCs, both
anthropogenic and biogenic, and harmonize the methods of their
calculation or estimation;
(g) Improve their understanding of the chemical processes involved in
the creation of photochemical oxidants;
(h) Identify possible measures to reduce emissions of methane.
Article 6
REVIEW PROCESS
1. The Parties shall regularly review the present Protocol, taking into
account the best available scientific substantiation and technological
development.
2. The first review shall take place no later than one year after the
date of entry into force of the present Protocol.
Article 7
NATIONAL PROGRAMMES, POLICIES AND STRATEGIES
The Parties shall develop without undue delay national programmes,
policies and strategies to implement the obligations under the present
Protocol that shall serve as a means of controlling and reducing
emissions of VOCs or their transboundary fluxes.
Article 8
INFORMATION EXCHANGE AND ANNUAL REPORTING
1. The Parties shall exchange information by notifying the Executive Body
of the national programmes, policies and strategies that they develop in
accordance with article 7, and by reporting to it progress achieved
under, and any changes to, those programmes, policies and strategies. In
the first year after entry into force of this Protocol, each Party shall
report on the level of emissions of VOCs in its territory and any TOMA in
its territory, by total and, to the extent feasible, by sector of origin
and by individual VOC, according to guidelines to be specified by the
Executive Body for 1988 or any other year taken as the base year for
article 2.2 and on the basis upon which these levels have been
calculated.
2. Furthermore each Party shall report annually:
(a) On the matters specified in paragraph 1 for the previous calendar
year, and on any revision which may be necessary to the reports already
made for earlier years;
(b) On progress in applying national or international emission
standards and the control techniques required under article 2, paragraph
3;
(c) On measures taken to facilitate the exchange of technology.
3. In addition, Parties within the geographical scope of EMEP shall
report, at intervals to be specified by the Executive Body, information
on VOC emissions by sector of origin, with a spatial resolution, to be
specified by the Executive Body, appropriate for purposes of modeling the
formation and transport of secondary photochemical oxidant products.
4. Such information shall, as far as possible, be submitted in accordance
with a uniform reporting framework.
Article 9
CALCULATIONS
EMEP shall, utilizing appropriate models and measurements, provide to the
annual meetings of the Executive Body relevant information on the
long-range transport of ozone in Europe. In areas outside the
geographical scope of EMEP, models appropriate to the particular
circumstances of Parties to the Convention therein shall be used.
Article 10
ANNEXES
The annexes to the present Protocol shall form an integral part of the
Protocol. Annex I is mandatory while annexes II, III and IV are
recommendatory.
Article 11
AMENDMENTS TO THE PROTOCOL
1. Any Party may propose amendments to the present Protocol.
2. Proposed amendments shall be submitted in writing to the Executive
Secretary of the Commission, who shall communicate them to all Parties.
The Executive Body shall discuss the proposed amendments at its next
annual meeting, provided that those proposals have been circulated by the
Executive Secretary to the Parties at least 90 days in advance.
3. Amendments to the Protocol, other than amendments to its annexes,
shall be adopted by consensus of the Parties present at a meeting of the
Executive Body, and shall enter into force for the Parties which have
accepted them on the ninetieth day after the date on which two thirds of
the Parties have deposited their instruments of acceptance thereof.
Amendments shall enter into force for any Party which has accepted them
after two thirds of the Parties have deposited their instruments of
acceptance of the amendment, on the ninetieth day after the date on which
that Party deposited its instrument of acceptance of the amendments.
4. Amendments to the annexes shall be adopted by consensus of the Parties
present at a meeting of the Executive Body and shall become effective 30
days after the date on which they have been communicated, in accordance
with paragraph 5 of this article.
5. Amendments under paragraphs 3 and 4 of this article shall, as soon as
possible after their adoption, be communicated by the Executive Secretary
to all Parties.
Article 12
SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES
If a dispute arises between two or more Parties as to the interpretation
or application of the present Protocol, they shall seek a solution by
negotiation or by any other method of dispute settlement acceptable to
the parties to the dispute.
Article 13
SIGNATURE
1. The present Protocol shall be open for signature at Geneva from 18
November 1991 until 22 November 1991 inclusive, then at the United
Nations Headquarters in New York until 22 May 1992, by the States members
of the Commission as well as States having consultative status with the
Commission, pursuant to paragraph 8 of Economic and Social Council
resolution 36 (IV) of 28 March 1947, and by regional economic integration
organizations, constituted by sovereign States members of the Commission,
which have competence in respect of the negotiation, conclusion and
application of international agreements in matters covered by the
Protocol, provided that the States and organizations concerned are
Parties to the Convention.
2. In matters within their competence, such regional economic integration
organizations shall, on their own behalf, exercise the rights and fulfill
the responsibilities which the present Protocol attributes to their
member States. In such cases, the member States of these organizations
shall not be entitled to exercise such rights individually.
Article 14
RATIFICATION, ACCEPTANCE, APPROVAL AND ACCESSION
1. The present Protocol shall be subject to ratification, acceptance or
approval by Signatories.
2. The present Protocol shall be open for accession as from 22 May 1992
by the States and organizations referred to in article 13, paragraph 1.
Article 15
DEPOSITARY
The instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession shall
be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who will
perform the functions of Depositary.
Article 16
ENTRY INTO FORCE
1. The present Protocol shall enter into force on the ninetieth day
following the date on which the sixteenth instrument of ratification,
acceptance, approval or accession has been deposited.
2. For each State and organization referred to in article 13, paragraph
1, which ratifies, accepts or approves the present Protocol or accedes
thereto after the deposit of the sixteenth instrument of ratification,
acceptance, approval or accession, the Protocol shall enter into force on
the ninetieth day following the date of deposit by such Party of its
instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
Article 17
WITHDRAWAL
At any time after five years from the date on which the present Protocol
has come into force with respect to a Party, that Party may withdraw from
it by giving written notification to the Depositary. Any such withdrawal
shall take effect on the ninetieth day following the date of its receipt
by the Depositary, or on such later date as may be specified in the
notification of the withdrawal.
Article 18
AUTHENTIC TEXTS
The original of the present Protocol, of which the English, French and
Russian texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the
Secretary-General of the United Nations.
In witness whereof the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto, have
signed the present Protocol.
Done at Geneva this eighteenth day of November one thousand nine hundred
and ninety-one.
ANNEX I
DESIGNATED TROPOSPHERIC OZONE MANAGEMENT AREAS (TOMAs)
The following TOMAs are specified for the purposes of this Protocol:
Canada
TOMA No. 1: The Lower Fraser Valley in the Province of British Columbia.
This is a 16,800-km2 area in the southwestern corner of the Province of
British Columbia averaging 80 km in width and extending 200 km up the Fraser
River Valley from the mouth of the river in the Strait of Georgia to
Boothroyd, British Columbia. Its southern boundary is the Canada/ United
States international boundary and it includes the Greater Vancouver Regional
District.
TOMA No. 2: The Windsor-Quebec Corridor in the Provinces of Ontario and
Quebec.
This is a 157,000-km2 area consisting of a strip of land 1,100 km long and
averaging 140 km in width stretching from the City of Windsor (adjacent to
Detroit in the United States) in the Province of Ontario to Quebec City in the
Province of Quebec. The Windsor-Quebec Corridor TOMA is located along the
north shore of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River in Ontario and
straddles the St. Lawrence River from the Ontario-Quebec border to Quebec City
in Quebec. It includes the urban centres of Windsor, London, Hamilton,
Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal, Trois-Rivieres and Quebec City.
Norway
The total Norwegian mainland as well as the exclusive economic zone south of
62 degrees N latitude in the region of the Economic Commission for Europe
(ECE), covering an area of 466,000 km2.
ANNEX II
CONTROL MEASURES FOR EMISSIONS OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)
FROM STATIONARY SOURCES
INTRODUCTION
1. The aim of this annex is to provide the Parties to the Convention with
guidance in identifying best available technologies to enable them to meet the
obligations of the Protocol.
2. Information regarding emission performance and costs is based on official
documentation of the Executive Body and its subsidiary bodies, in particular
documents received and reviewed by the Task Force on Emissions of VOCs from
Stationary Sources. Unless otherwise indicated, the techniques listed are
considered to be well established on the basis of operational experience.
3. Experience with new products and new plants incorporating low-emission
techniques, as well as with the retrofitting of existing plants, is
continuously growing; the regular elaboration and amendment of the annex will
therefore be necessary. Best available technologies identified for new plants
can be applied to existing plants after an adequate transition period.
4. The annex lists a number of measures spanning a range of costs and
efficiencies. The choice of measures for any particular case will depend on a
number of factors, including economic circumstances, technological
infrastructure and any existing VOC control implemented.
5. This annex does not, in general, take into account the specific species of
VOC emitted by the different sources, but deals with best available
technologies for VOC reduction. When measures are planned for some sources, it
is worthwhile to consider giving priority to those activities which emit
reactive rather than non-reactive VOCs (e.g. in the solvent-using sector).
However, when such compound-specific measures are designed, other effects on
the environment (e.g. global climate change) and on human health should also
be taken into account.
I. MAJOR SOURCES OF VOC EMISSIONS FROM STATIONARY SOURCES
6. The major sources of anthropogenic non-methane VOC emissions from
stationary sources are the following:
(a) Use of solvents;
(b) Petroleum industry including petroleum-product handling;
(c) Organic chemical industry;
(d) Small-scale combustion sources (e.g. domestic heating and small
industrial boilers);
(e) Food industry;
(f) Iron and steel industry;
(g) Handling and treatment of wastes;
(h) Agriculture.
7. The order of the list reflects the general importance of the sources
subject to the uncertainties of emission inventories. The distribution of VOC
emissions according to different sources depends greatly on the fields of
activity within the territory of any particular Party.
II. GENERAL OPTIONS FOR VOC-EMISSION REDUCTION
8. There are several possibilities for the control or prevention of VOC
emissions. Measures for the reduction of VOC emissions focus on products
and/or process modifications (including maintenance and operational control)
and on the retrofitting of existing plants. The following list gives a
general outline of measures available, which may be implemented either singly
or in combination:
(a) Substitution of VOCs, e.g. the use of water-based degreasing baths,
and paints, inks, glues or adhesives which are low in or do not contain VOCs;
(b) Reduction by best management practices such as good housekeeping,
preventive maintenance programmes, or by changes in processes such as closed
systems during utilization, storage and distribution of low-boiling organic
liquids;
(c) Recycling and/or recovery of efficiently collected VOCs by control
techniques such as adsorption, absorption, condensation and membrane
processes; ideally, organic compounds can be reused on-site;
(d) Destruction of efficiently collected VOCs by control techniques such
as thermal or catalytic incineration or biological treatment.
9. The monitoring of abatement procedures is necessary to ensure that
appropriate control measures and practices are properly implemented for an
effective reduction of VOC emissions. Monitoring of abatement procedures will
include:
(a) The development of an inventory of those VOC-emission reduction
measures, identified above, that have already been implemented;
(b) The characterization and quantification of VOC emissions from
relevant sources by instrumental or other techniques;
(c) Periodic auditing of abatement measures implemented to ensure their
continued efficient operation;
(d) Regularly scheduled reporting on (a), (b) and (c), using harmonized
procedures, to regulatory authorities;
(e) Comparison, with the objectives of the Protocol, of VOC-emission
reductions achieved in practice.
10. The investment/cost figures have been collected from various sources. On
account of the many influencing factors, investment/cost figures are highly
case-specific. If the unit "cost per tonne of VOC abated" is used for
cost-efficient strategy considerations, it must be borne in mind that such
specific figures are highly dependent on factors such as plant capacity,
removal efficiency and raw gas VOC concentration, type of technology, and the
choice of new installations as opposed to retrofitting. Illustrative cost
figures should also be based on process-specific parameters, e.g. mg/m2
treated (paints), kg/m3 product or kg/unit.
11. Cost-efficient strategy considerations should be based on total costs per
year (including capital and operational costs). VOC-emission reduction costs
should also be considered within the framework of the overall process
economics,e.g. the impact of control measures and costs on the costs of
production.
TABLE 1. A SUMMARY OF AVAILABLE VOC CONTROL TECHNIQUES,
THEIR EFFICIENCIES AND COSTS
---------------------------------------------------------
Technique Lower concentration
in air flow
------------------------------
Efficiency Cost
---------------------------------------------------------
Thermal incineration ** High High
Catalytic incineration ** High Medium
Adsorption * High High
(activated carbon filters)
Absorption -- --
(Waste gas washing)
Condensation * -- --
Biofiltration Medium to Low
high
---------------------------------------------------------
[TABLE 1, cont.]